Key figures in Syria’s long-running civil war, which was reignited by a shock rebel offensive

Syrian opposition fighters ride a motorcycle past Syrian Army aircraft at Al-Nayrab military airport on Monday, Dec. 2, 2024, after they took control of the facility on the outskirts of Aleppo, Syria. (AP Photo/Omar Albam)

BEIRUT (AP) — Syria’s long civil war has regained global attention after insurgents captured most of Syria’s largest city as well as dozens of surrounding towns and villages.

The rebels’ stunning advance on Aleppo came as several key players in the conflict were distracted or weakened, leading to the worst clashes since a 2020 ceasefire that brought relative calm to the country’s north.

Russian and Syrian forces have carried out dozens of airstrikes to stem the insurgent advance, inflicting heavy casualties.

The civil war in Syria began in 2011 after an uprising against the rule of President Bashar al-Assad. Five foreign powers have a military presence in the country, including the United States, Russia and Iran. Anti-Assad forces, along with U.S.-backed fighters, control more than a third of the country. Israel holds the Golan Heights, which it captured in a 1967 war with its Arab neighbors.

Here’s a look at the main players:

Syrian pro-government forces supported by Russia and Iran

Syrian government troops have long controlled much of the country thanks to allied forces sent by Russia and Iran.

Assad’s forces control most major population centers, including the capital Damascus and cities in central, southern and eastern Syria.

The Syrian government’s capture of Aleppo in late 2016 marked a turning point in the conflict and the loss of the city in recent days is a major setback.

Iran’s military advisers and proxies have played a crucial role in bolstering Assad’s forces throughout the war. But Lebanon’s militant Hezbollah group, which is backed by Iran, has been severely weakened in its recent war with Israel, and Iran has been distracted by the conflict. On Monday, Iran-backed Iraqi militias deployed to Syria to support the government’s counteroffensive.

The Russian military has supported Assad from the Mediterranean coast, where it maintains its only naval base outside the former Soviet Union, and at the Hemeimeem air base in Latakia province, where hundreds of Russian troops are stationed. But much of his attention and resources were focused on the war in Ukraine.

Insurgent groups mainly supported by Turkey

The anti-government forces are led by the insurgent group Hayat Tahrir al-Sham, which has long served as an offshoot of al-Qaeda in Syria and has been designated a terrorist group by the United Nations and countries such as the United States

HTS controls much of northwest Syria and established a “salvation government” in 2017 to manage day-to-day affairs in the region. In recent years, its leader Abu Mohammed al-Golani has sought to reshape the group’s image by cutting ties with al-Qaeda, abandoning hardline officials and embracing pluralism and religious tolerance.

Other insurgent groups include Noureddine el-Zinki, which was previously backed by the US before joining the HTS-led alliance.

A Turkish-backed coalition of groups known as the Syrian National Army has attacked areas including the northern city of Tel Rifaat, which is controlled by the U.S.-backed, Kurdish-led Syrian Democratic Forces.

According to Syrian opposition activists, Chinese fighters from the Islamic Party of Turkistan and Chechen fighters from the former Soviet Union have taken part in the fighting in the northwest of the country. Turkey, which controls parts of northern Syria, would not say how many troops it has stationed in the country.

Syrian Democratic Forces, supported by the USA

The Kurdish-led Syrian Democratic Forces, a U.S.-backed coalition of groups, controls much of eastern Syria.

The SDF has fought against the Islamic State group and captured the last piece of land in eastern Syria held by the extremists. Around 900 US soldiers are stationed in eastern Syria to prevent a resurgence of the extremist group.

SDF troops still control several districts of Aleppo surrounded by insurgents. Opposition activists said the insurgents were willing to let those fighters cross into northeastern Syria, but it was not immediately clear whether the Kurdish-led forces would do so.

Turkey believes the SDF’s main Kurdish faction is linked to the outlawed Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK), which it and its allies consider a terrorist group.

FILE – From left: Iranian President Hassan Rouhani, Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan and Russian President Vladimir Putin shake hands during their meeting in Ankara, Turkey, Monday, September 16, 2019. (AP Photo/Pavel Golovkin, Pool, File)

FILE – Israeli soldiers drive military vehicles during an exercise in the Israeli-controlled Golan Heights near the border with Syria, Tuesday, August 4, 2020. (AP Photo/Ariel Schalit, File)

FILE – In this photo posted on the official website of the Iranian Supreme Leader’s Office, Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei (right) speaks with Syrian President Bashar Assad at a meeting in Tehran, Iran, Thursday, April 30. May 2024. (Office of the Iranian Supreme Leader via AP, File)

FILE – This undated file photo released by a militant group in 2016 shows Abu Mohammed al-Golani of the militant Levant Liberation Committee and the leader of al-Qaeda’s Syrian branch (second right) talking to field commanders about a map detailing the battlefield discusses Aleppo, Syria. (Militant UGC via AP, File)

FILE – This file photo made available by the government-controlled Syrian Central Military Media on Oct. 20, 2017 shows Iranian Army Chief of Staff Maj. Gen. Mohammad Bagheri, left, looking at a map with senior officers in the Iranian military, while they are about to visit a front line in the northern province of Aleppo, Syria. (Syrian Central Military Media, via AP, File)

FILE – In this snapshot from video, Russians, Syrians and others gather next to an American military convoy stuck in the village of Khirbet Ammu, east of the city of Qamishli, Syria, on February 12, 2020. (AP Photo, File)

FILE – Turkish and American armored vehicles conduct the first joint patrol in the so-called “safe zone” on the Syrian side of the border with Turkey near Tal Abyad, Syria, Sept. 8, 2019. (AP Photo/Maya Alleruzzo, File)

Syrian opposition fighters stand on a plane at Al-Nayrab military airport on Monday, Dec. 2, 2024, after taking control of the facility on the outskirts of Aleppo, Syria. (AP Photo/Omar Albam)

Syrian opposition fighters stand on the wings of an old aircraft at Al-Nayrab military airport after taking control of the facility on the outskirts of Aleppo, Syria, Monday, Dec. 2, 2024. (AP Photo/Omar Albam)

A Syrian opposition fighter sits on an office chair and poses for a photo at the arrival gate of Aleppo International Airport in Aleppo, Syria, Monday, Dec. 2, 2024. (AP Photo/Omar Albam)

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